Category Archives: Programming

Programming is the process of designing, coding, debugging and maintaining the source code of programs

Thursday April 4th, 2024 secarcam

Programming

The programming divides a problem into its basic components to solve it with a computer using coded instructions acceptable by the machine

Pseudocode

It is the language similar to the spoken language chosen by us to design algorithms

Later, this pseudocode will be useful to convert it to a specific programming language to create programs

Algorithm

It is an ordered and finite sequence of steps, free of ambiguity, whose operations are necessary to transform the initial data of a problem in the results you want to obtain

Being those that are the solution to a problem (there can be more than one algorithm, since the solution to a problem does not have to be unique) in a finite time

Example of algorithm

{PRE: option ='R ' or ' T', base > 0, height > 0}
algorithm areas
{POST: area = base * height if option ='R'; area =(base * height) / 2 if option ='T'}
variable
    option: character
    base, height, area: real
begin
    write ('Enter the type of figure R/T')
    read (option)
    write ('base = ')
    read (base)
    write (' height = ')
    read (height)
    if option = 'R' then
       area = base * height
    else
       area =(base * height) / 2
    endif
    write ('The area of the figure is ', area)
end

As seen in the example, from some data: option, base and height (which are described in the Precondition)

They are processed through a set of instructions, we obtain the information we wanted, the area of the geometric figure (which is described in the Postcondition)

Therefore, information is not born or arises from nothing, it must be prepared from raw material, the data, through a process

Algorithm

Program

It is a finite set of instructions directly understandable by an information processing system: machinery, a computer, a tablet, a mobile phone

They will allow ordering the execution of the sequence of steps chosen to solve the given problem in finite time

Data, Programming

Data

Thursday April 4th, 2024 secarcam

Data

A piece of information is anything that gives us knowledge about something: numbers, letters, symbols, images, sounds...

The data have to be stored in the memory of the machine so that it can work with them

The encoding of the data in the machine memory will be based on the type of the data: integer, real, character, etc

Not only data but also instructions are stored

This is to see how the machine internally represents the information

The electronic circuits that make up the machine are only capable of distinguishing between two values (ON / OFF, YES / NO, TRUE / FALSE)

These two values are physically implemented as current step, not current step

To distinguish between a greater number of voltage levels would facilitate the production of errors

Because of this, internal encoding methods must use only two symbols, the binary encoding

The alphanumeric characters (set of alphabetic and numeric characters, although in general, it is assumed that it also includes the rest of the characters available in the system, thus including graphic and control characters) are represented with codes in a type of numerical representation, also called tables of codes or representation tables, ASCII, EBCDIC, etc

Thus, depending on the representation code used, we will say that character A corresponds to a code decimal / binary / octal / hexadecimal

Artificial intelligence, Programming

Artificial intelligence

Friday April 5th, 2024 secarcam

Artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI), in the context of computer science, is a discipline and a set of cognitive and intellectual capabilities expressed by computer systems or combinations of algorithms whose purpose is the creation of machines that imitate human intelligence to perform tasks, and that they can improve as they gather information

It became present shortly after the Second World War with the development of the Turing test, while the phrase was coined in 1956 by computer scientist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference

Today, artificial intelligence covers a wide variety of subfields

These range from general purpose areas, learning and perception, to more specific areas such as speech recognition, playing chess, proving mathematical theorems, writing poetry and diagnosing diseases

Artificial intelligence synthesizes and automates tasks that are in principle intellectual and is therefore potentially relevant to any area of human intellectual activities

In this sense, it is a genuinely universal field

The architecture of artificial intelligence and the processes by which they learn, improve and are implemented in some area of interest varies depending on the usefulness approach that you want to give them

But in general, these range from the execution of simple algorithms to the interconnection of complex artificial neural networks that try to replicate the neural circuits of the human brain and that learn through different learning models such as machine learning, reinforcement learning, deep learning and supervised learning

On the other hand, the development and application of artificial intelligence in many aspects of daily life has also led to the creation of new fields of study such as roboethics and machine ethics that address aspects related to ethics in artificial intelligence

They are responsible for analyzing how advances in this type of technology would impact various areas of life, as well as the responsible and ethical management that should be given to them, in addition to establishing what should be the correct way to proceed. machines and the rules they should follow

Regarding its classification, artificial intelligence is traditionally divided into weak artificial intelligence, which is the only one that currently exists and is responsible for carrying out specific tasks, and general artificial intelligence, which would be an AI that exceeds the capabilities human

Some experts believe that if this level is ever reached, it could lead to the emergence of a technological singularity, that is, a superior technological entity that would constantly improve itself, becoming uncontrollable by humans, giving rise to theories such as Roko's basilisk

Some of the most well known and currently used artificial intelligences around the world include artificial intelligence in the field of health, virtual assistants such as Alexa, Google Assistant or Siri, automatic translators such as Google Translate and DeepL, recommendation systems such as that of the YouTube digital platform, chess engines and other games such as Stockfish and AlphaZero, chatbots such as ChatGPT, creators of artificial intelligence art like Midjourney, Dall-e, Leonardo and Stable Diffusion, and even driving autonomous vehicles like Tesla Autopilot

Likewise, artificial intelligence is being developed on the digital platform more and more, evolving and creating new tools, such as the labor platform that has existed since 2023 called SIVIUM

A tool through which a person applies automatically to all job offers from all job portals, without having to review each job offer that is presented and send their CV one by one

Description

In 2019, the UNESCO World Commission on Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology (COMEST) defined artificial intelligence as:

Field that involves machines capable of imitating certain functionalities of human intelligence, including characteristics such as perception, learning, reasoning, problem solving, linguistic interaction, and even the production of creative works

Colloquially, the locution artificial intelligence applies when a machine imitates the functions cognitive that humans associate as human competencies, for example: perceive, reason, learn and solve problems

Andreas Kaplan and Michael Haenlein define artificial intelligence as:

The ability of a system to correctly interpret external data, and thus learn and use that knowledge to achieve specific tasks and goals through flexible adaptation

As machines become increasingly capable, technology once thought to require intelligence is removed from the definition

Marvin Minsky, one of the creators of AI, spoke of the term artificial intelligence as a suitcase word because a variety of elements can be put in it

For example, optical character recognition is no longer perceived as an example of artificial intelligence, having become a common technology

Technological advances still classified as artificial intelligence are autonomous driving systems or those capable of playing chess or Go

Artificial intelligence is a new way of solving problems, which includes expert systems, the management and control of robots and processors, which attempts to integrate knowledge into such systems, in other words, an intelligent system capable of writing its own program

An expert system defined as a programming structure capable of storing and using knowledge about a specific area that translates into its learning capacity

In the same way, AI can be considered as the ability of machines to use algorithms, learn from data and use what they learn in making decisions just as a human being would do

According to Takeyas (2007)

AI is a branch of computer science responsible for studying computing models capable of carrying out activities typical of human beings based on two of their primary characteristics: reasoning and behavior

In 1956, John McCarthy coined the term artificial intelligence, and defined it as:

The science and ingenuity of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs

There are also different types of perceptions and actions, which can be obtained and produced, respectively, by physical sensors and mechanical sensors in machines, electrical or optical pulses in computers, as well as by bit inputs and outputs of software and its software environment

Several examples are in the area of system control, automatic planning, the ability to respond to diagnostics and consumer inquiries, handwriting recognition, speech recognition and pattern recognition

AI systems are currently part of the routine in fields such as economics, medicine, engineering, transportation, communications and the military, and have been used in a wide variety of computer programs, strategy games, such as computer chess, and other video games

Types

Stuart J. Russell and Peter Norvig differentiate several types of artificial intelligence:

Systems that think like humans: These systems try to emulate human thinking; for example, artificial neural networks. The automation of activities that we link with human thought processes, activities such as decision making, problem solving and learning
Systems that act like humans: These systems try to act like humans; that is, they imitate human behavior; for example, robotics (The study of how to get computers to perform tasks that, at the moment, humans do better)
Systems that think rationally: That is, with logic (ideally), they try to imitate the rational thinking of human beings; for example, expert systems, (the study of the calculations that make it possible to perceive, reason and act)
Systems that act rationally: They try to rationally emulate human behavior; for example, intelligent agents, which is related to intelligent behaviors in artifacts

Generative artificial intelligence

Generative artificial intelligence is a type of artificial intelligence system capable of generating text, images or other media in response to commands

Generative AI models learn the patterns and structure of their input training data and then generate new data that has similar characteristics

Notable generative AI systems include ChatGPT (and its Microsoft Copilot variant), a chatbot built by OpenAI using its foundational large language models GPT-3 and GPT-4; and Bard, a chatbot built by Google using Gemini

Other generative AI models include AI art systems like Stable Diffusion, Midjourney, and DALL-E

Strong artificial intelligence

Strong Artificial Intelligence (SAI) is a hypothetical type of artificial intelligence that equals or exceeds average human intelligence

If it became a reality, an SAI could learn to perform any intellectual task that humans or animals can perform

Alternatively, the SAI has been defined as an autonomous system that exceeds human capabilities in most economically valuable tasks

Some argue that it could be possible in years or decades; others, that it could take a century or more; and a minority believes that it may never be achieved

There is debate about the exact definition of SAI and whether modern large language models (LLMs), such as GPT-4, are early but incomplete forms of SAI

Explainable artificial intelligence

Explainable artificial intelligence refers to methods and techniques in the application of artificial intelligence technology by which humans are able to understand the decisions and predictions made by artificial intelligence

Friendly artificial intelligence

Friendly artificial intelligence is a hypothetical strong AI that can have a positive rather than a negative effect on humanity

Friendly is used in this context as technical terminology and chooses agents that are safe and useful, not necessarily those that are friendly in the colloquial sense

The concept is invoked primarily in the context of discussions of artificial recursive self-enhancing agents that rapidly explode into intelligence, with the argument that this hypothetical technology could have a long, fast and difficult task of controlling the impact on human society

Multimodal artificial intelligence

Multimodal artificial intelligence is a type of artificial intelligence that can process and integrate data from different modalities, such as text, images, audio and video, to obtain a more complete and contextualized understanding of a situation

Multimodal artificial intelligence is inspired by the way humans use multiple senses to perceive and interact with the world, offering a more natural and intuitive way to communicate with technology

Quantum artificial intelligence

Quantum artificial intelligence is an interdisciplinary field that focuses on building quantum algorithms to improve computational tasks within AI, including subfields such as machine learning

There is evidence that shows a possible quantum quadratic advantage in fundamental AI operations

In order to represent quantum information, the basic unit of the Qubits

Schools of thought

AI is divided into two schools of thought:

Conventional artificial intelligence

It is also known as symbolic-deductive AI

It is based on the formal and statistical analysis of human behavior when faced with different problems:

Case-based reasoning: It helps to make decisions while solving certain specific problems and, apart from being very important, they require good functioning
Expert systems: They infer a solution through prior knowledge of the context in which certain rules or relationships are applied and used
Bayesian networks: Propose solutions through probabilistic inference
Behavior-based artificial intelligence: This intelligence contains autonomy, that is, it can self-regulate and control itself to improve
Smart process management: Facilitates complex decision making, proposing a solution to a given problem just as a specialist in said activity would do

Computational artificial intelligence

Computational artificial intelligence (also known as subsymbolic-inductive AI) involves interactive development or learning (for example, interactive modifications of parameters in connection systems)

The knowledge is achieved based on empiric facts

Computational artificial intelligence has a dual purpose

On the one hand, its scientific objective is to understand the principles that enable intelligent behavior (whether in natural or artificial systems) and, on the other, its technological objective is to specify the methods for designing intelligent systems

History

The expression artificial intelligence it was formally coined in 1956 during the Dartmouth Conference, but by then it had already been worked on for five years in which many different definitions had been proposed that in no case had managed to be fully accepted by the research community

AI is one of the most recent disciplines along with modern genetics

The most basic ideas date back to the ancient Greeks

Aristotle (384-322 BC) was the first to describe a set of rules that describe a part of the functioning of the mind to obtain rational conclusions, and Ctesibius of Alexandria (250 BC) built the first self-controlled machine, a water flow regulator (rational but without reasoning)

In 1315 Ramon Llull in his book Ars magna had the idea that reasoning could be carried out artificially

In 1840 Ada Lovelace foresaw the ability of machines to go beyond simple calculations and provided the first idea of what software would be

Leonardo Torres Quevedo (1852-1936) is considered one of the fathers of artificial intelligence and automation

In 1936 Alan Turing formally designed a Universal Machine that demonstrated the feasibility of a physical device to implement any formally defined computation

In 1943 Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts presented their model of artificial neurons, which is considered the first work in the field, even though the term did not yet exist. The first important advances began in the early 1950s with the work of Alan Turing, from which science has gone through various situations

In 1955, Herbert Simon, Allen Newell and Joseph Carl Shaw developed the first problem-solving programming language, IPL-11

A year later they developed the LogicTheorist, which was capable of proving mathematical theorems

In 1956 the expression was devised artificial intelligence by John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky and Claude Shannon at the Dartmouth Conference, a conference in which triumphalist ten-year predictions were made that were never fulfilled, leading to the almost total abandonment of research for fifteen years

In 1957 Newell and Simon continued their work with the development of the General Problem Solver (GPS)

GPS was a problem solving system

In 1958 John McCarthy developed LISP at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)

Its name is derived from LISt Processor

LISP was the first language for symbolic processing

In 1959 Rosenblatt introduced the perceptrón

In the late 1950s and early 1960s Robert K. Lindsay developed Sad Sam, a program for reading sentences in English and inferring conclusions from their interpretation

In 1963 Quillian developed semantic networks as a knowledge representation model

In 1964 Bertrand Raphael built the SIR (Semantic Information Retrieval) system which was capable of inferring knowledge based on information provided to it

Also in 1964, Daniel G. Bobrow developed STUDENT as his doctoral thesis

STUDENT was a program written in Lisp that read and solved algebra problems

In the mid-60s, expert systems appeared, which predict the probability of a solution under a set of conditions

For example:

DENDRAL: initiated in 1965 by Buchanan, Feigenbaum and Lederberg, the first Expert System, which assisted chemists in complex chemical structures
MACSYMA: which assisted engineers and scientists in solving complex mathematical equations

Later, between 1968-1970, Terry Winograd developed the SHRDLU system, which allowed interrogating and giving orders to a robot that moved within a world of blocks

In 1968 Marvin Minsky published Semantic Information Processing

Also in 1968 Seymour Papert, Danny Bobrow and Wally Feurzeig developed the LOGO programming language

In 1969 Alan Kay developed the Smalltalk language at Xerox PARC and it was published in 1980

In 1973 Alain Colmenauer and his research team at the University of Aix-Marseille created PROLOG (from the French PROgrammation in LOGique) a programming language widely used in AI

In 1973 Shank and Abelson developed scripts, pillars of many current techniques in artificial intelligence and computing in general

In 1974 Edward Shortliffe wrote his thesis with MYCIN, one of the best-known Expert Systems, which assisted doctors in the diagnosis and treatment of blood infections

In the 1970s and 1980s, the use of expert systems grew, such as MYCIN: R1/XCON, ABRL, PIP, PUFF, CASNET, INTERNIST/CADUCEUS, etc

Some remain to this day (Shells) such as EMYCIN, EXPERT, OPSS

In 1981 Kazuhiro Fuchi announced the Japanese project for the fifth generation of computers

In 1986 McClelland and Rumelhart published Parallel Distributed Processing (Neural Networks)

In 1988, Object Oriented languages were established

In 1997 Gari Kasparov, world chess champion, loses to the autonomous computer Deep Blue

In 2006 the anniversary was celebrated with the Congress in Spanish 50 years of artificial intelligence (Campus Multidisciplinar en Percepción e Inteligencia 2006)

In 2009, there were already intelligent therapeutic systems in development that allow detecting emotions to be able to interact with autistic children

In 2011, IBM developed a supercomputer called Watson, which won a round of three games in a row of Jeopardy!, beating its two top champions, and winning a $1 million prize that IBM then donated to charity

In 2016, a computer program beat the three-time European Go champion five to zero

Also in 2016, then-President Obama talks about the future of artificial intelligence and technology

In the chats, chatbots appear that dialogue with people and they do not realize that they are talking to a program

Which proves that the Turing test is fulfilled as when it was formulated:

Artificial intelligence will exist when we are not able to distinguish between a human being and a computer program in a blind conversation

In 2017, AlphaGo developed by DeepMind defeated world champion Lee Sedol 4-1 in a Go competition

This event received a lot of media attention and marked a milestone in the history of this game

At the end of that same year, Stockfish, the chess engine considered the best in the world with 3,400 ELO points

He was overwhelmingly defeated by AlphaZero just by knowing the rules of the game and after only 4 hours of training playing against himself

Anecdotally, many AI researchers argue that:

Intelligence is a program capable of being executed independently of the machine that executes it, computer or brain

In 2018, the first television with artificial intelligence is launched by LG Electronics with a platform called ThinQ

In 2019, Google presented its Doodle in which, with the help of artificial intelligence, it pays tribute to Johann Sebastian Bach, in which, by adding a simple two-bar melody, the AI creates the rest

In 2020, the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) publishes the working document entitled Hello world: Artificial intelligence and its use in the public sector, aimed at government officials with the aim of highlighting the importance of AI and its practical applications in the government sphere

At the end of the year 2022, it was launched ChatGPT, a generative artificial intelligence capable of writing texts and answering questions in many languages

Since the quality of the answers was initially reminiscent of the human level, global enthusiasm for AI was generated and ChatGPT reached more than 100 million users two months after its launch

Later, experts noted that ChatGPT provides misinformation in areas where you have no knowledge (“data hallucinations”), which at first glance seems credible due to its perfect wording

In 2023, AI-generated photos reached a level of realism that made them look like real photos

As a result, there was a wave of AI-generated “photos” that many viewers believed were real

An image generated by Midjourney stood out, showing Pope Francis in a stylish white winter coat

Social, ethical and philosophical implications

Faced with the possibility of creating machines endowed with intelligence, it became important to be concerned with the ethical question of machines in order to try to ensure that no harm is caused to human beings, to other living beings and even to the machines themselves according to some schools of thought

This is how a broad field of studies known as the ethics of artificial intelligence emerged, relatively recently emerging and generally divided into two branches, roboethics, responsible for studying the actions of human beings towards robots, and the ethics of machines in charge of studying the behavior of robots towards human beings

The accelerated technological and scientific development of artificial intelligence that has occurred in the 21st century also has a significant impact on other fields

In the world economy, during the second industrial revolution, a phenomenon known as technological unemployment was experienced, which refers to when industrial automation of large scale production processes replaces human labor

A similar phenomenon could occur with artificial intelligence, especially in the processes in which human intelligence intervenes, as illustrated in the story How much fun they had! of Isaac Asimov

In it, its author glimpses some of the effects that the interaction of intelligent machines specialized in children's pedagogy, instead of human teachers, would have with children in school

This same writer designed what are known today as the three laws of robotics, which appeared for the first time in his story Runaround of 1942, where it established the following:

First Law: A robot will not harm a human being nor allow a human being to come to harm
Second Law A robot must follow orders given by humans, except for those that conflict with the first law
Third Law A robot must protect its own existence to the extent that this protection does not conflict with the first or second law

Other science fiction works in the cinema

Goals

Reasoning and problem solving

Early researchers developed algorithms that mimicked the step-by-step reasoning that humans use when solving puzzles or making logical deductions

By the late 1981-1990s, artificial intelligence research had developed methods for dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts of probability and economics

These algorithms proved insufficient to solve large reasoning problems because they experienced a “combinatorial explosion”: they became exponentially slower as the problems grew

In this way, it was concluded that humans rarely use the step-by-step deduction that early artificial intelligence research followed; instead, they solve most of their problems using quick, intuitive judgments

Knowledge representation

Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering are fundamental to classical artificial intelligence research

Some “expert systems” attempt to compile the knowledge that experts have in a specific field

Additionally, other projects attempt to assemble the “common sense knowledge” known to the average person into a database that contains extensive knowledge about the world

Among the topics that a common sense knowledge base would contain are: objects, properties, categories and relationships between objects, situations, events, states and time, causes and effects; and knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what what other people know) among others

Planning

Another objective of artificial intelligence is to be able to set goals and finally achieve them

To do this, they need a way to visualize the future, a representation of the state of the world, and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it, in order to make decisions that maximize the utility (or “value”) of the available options

In classical planning problems, the agent can assume that it is the only system that acts in the world, which allows it to be sure of the consequences of its actions

However, if the agent is not the only actor, then it is required that the agent be able to reason under uncertainty.

This requires an agent that can not only evaluate its environment and make predictions, but also evaluate its predictions and adapt based on its evaluation

Multi-agent planning uses the cooperation and competition of many systems to achieve a given goal

Emergent behavior like this is used by evolutionary algorithms and swarm intelligence

Learning

Machine learning is a fundamental concept of artificial intelligence research since the beginning of studies in this field; consists of the research of computer algorithms that improve automatically through experience

Unsupervised learning is the ability to find patterns in an input stream, without requiring a human to label the inputs first

Supervised learning includes classification and numerical regression, which requires a human to first label the input data

Classification is used to determine which category something belongs to and occurs after a program looks at several examples of input from various categories

Regression is the attempt to produce a function that describes the relationship between inputs and outputs and predicts how the outputs should change as the inputs change

Both classifiers and regression learners try to learn an unknown function

For example, a spam classifier can be seen as learning a function that assigns the text of an email to one of two categories, "spam" or "non-spam"

Computational learning theory can assess students by computational complexity, sample complexity (how much data is required), or by other notions of optimization

The world is constantly evolving, and tools like ChatGPT are at the center of this transformation

While many people see ChatGPT as an opportunity to improve their business or personal experience, there are those who are skeptical about its implementation

Natural language processing

Natural language processing allows machines to read and understand human language

A sufficiently effective natural language processing system would enable natural language user interfaces and the acquisition of knowledge directly from human-written sources, such as news texts

Some simple applications of natural language processing include information retrieval, text mining, question answering, and machine translation

Many approaches use word frequencies to construct syntactic representations of text

"Keyword detection" search strategies are popular and scalable, but sub-optimal; A search query for "dog" can only match documents that contain the literal word "dog" and lose a document with the word "poodle"

Statistical language processing approaches can combine all of these strategies, as well as others, and often achieve acceptable accuracy at the page or paragraph level

Beyond the processing of semantics, the ultimate goal of this is to incorporate a complete understanding of common sense reasoning

In 2019, transformer-based deep learning architectures could generate coherent text

Perception

Machine perception is the ability to use input from sensors (such as visible or infrared cameras, microphones, wireless signals, and lidar, sonar, radar, and touch sensors) to understand aspects of the world

Applications include voice recognition, facial recognition and object recognition

Computer vision is the ability to analyze visual information, which is often ambiguous

For example, a fifty-meter-tall giant pedestrian very far away can produce the same pixels as a normal-sized pedestrian nearby

Which requires artificial intelligence to judge the relative probability and reasonableness of different interpretations

For example, defining and using an “object model” to evaluate that fifty meter pedestrians do not exist

Artificial intelligence, ChatGPT, Programming

ChatGPT

Sunday April 7th, 2024 secarcam

ChatGPT

ChatGPT (Chat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer) is an artificial intelligence chatbot application developed in 2022 by OpenAI that specializes in dialogue

The chatbot is a language model fine-tuned with both supervised and reinforcement learning techniques

It is composed of the GPT-4 and GPT-3.5 models from OpenAI

Transformers y GPT

The Transformers architecture (proposed by Google in 2017, Attention Is All You Need) has allowed the development of LLM (large language model) models, systems capable of recognizing and generating natural language based on Deep Learning

Based on the Transformers architecture, GPT and GPT 2 were published with open source licenses, from here on (GPT 3. GPT4...) OpenAI offers access to its models through a paid API

The base version, GPT is trained to provide the best possible continuation of a text

New versions are trained on this base model so that the model responds as a person would based on the instructions given to it: this is how ChatGPT appears

There is not much official information about ChatGPT specifications as of version 3, but we can find some clues about GPT3 and GPT4:

GPT 3 (released in 2020):
It is a model with 175,000 million parameters

For training, about 34 days are needed on 1024 NVIDIA A100 GPU cards

In 2021, simply running a single training of that magnitude on a provider like Google Cloud or AWS cost about $2.5M
GPT 4 (released in 2022):
It is a model with more than 1 billion (European) parameters

More than 10,000 NVIDIA GPUs would be used for training

To make an inference (for example answer a question we ask) 7 GPUs would be used

The cost of his training was over $100M

Versions

ChatGPT

It is the free version of the application, it uses GPT 3.5

This is a version of GPT trained to follow instructions

In addition, rules are included to prevent ChatGPT from generating controversial content (for example, denying climate change or making racist comments)

These cases are easily recognizable, ChatGPT's response usually begins with the message "As artificial intelligence,..." followed by some type of excuse before giving a more or less generic response

Currently accessible via web interface or API (to integrate into other systems/applications)

It is necessary to create a user on the platform openai.com to be able to test it

ChatGPT Plus

In addition to the free version, OpenAI offers a paid version with some additional features:

Subscription cost $20/month
Access to ChatGPT 4 model (compared to GPT 3.5 in free version)
Additional functionality:
- Web navegation
- Advanced data analysis (formerly Code Interpreter)
- Dalle-3
- Creation and access to “GPTs”, configurable with our own data/instructions
- Priority access during Access peaks
- Access to beta features (Plugins)
- 4k contexts

Access to GPT version 4 may be subject to restrictions (IP geolocation restrictions or those that OpenAI considers appropriate apply)

ChatGPT Enterprise

In September 2023 OpenAI published a subscription Enterprise with the following characteristics:

Your company data is not used to train OpenAI models
Conversation encryption
Company user management, advanced statistics
No usage limitations in GPT4
Running GPT4 at faster speed (2x)
32k contexts instead of 4k

Using ChatGPT

Account creation

Before being able to use ChatGPT it is necessary to have a registered account in the OpenAI system

For this we will use the following registration link

We will enter our email and a password

We will go to our email account, which must be valid and real

And we will confirm the account registration by clicking on the verification email that they will send us

We will continue entering the rest of the user data requested in the form

And now we can start using the ChatGPT promt command chat as long as we log in with the username and password of the account we have created

Privacy

Special care must be taken when using ChatGPT

By default our conversations are stored in a history and can be used to continue training ChatGPT

If we do not want our data to be used for training, there is an option in our account settings to disable the use of our data to train ChatGPT (and conversation history)

Detailed instructions can be found in the OpenAI documentation

PROMP

ChatGPT is trained to follow and execute the instructions we provide to it

Our instructions are called prompts

They can be as simple or complex as we want, and can include additional information

For example, an example text, an image, a link to a web page...

We can “talk” with ChatGPT interactively

For example, asking you to complete or correct your previous answer

That means we can ask him something, and then refer to either our previous question or his answer:

YOU: Suggest a fun title for an essay about the Catholic Monarchs
ChatGPT: "Reigning Fun: Exploring the Dynamic Legacy of the Catholic Monarchs"
YOU: And something a little more serious?
ChatGPT: "Unity and Power: The Impact of the Catholic Monarchs on Spain and Europe"

Effective PROMPS

ChatGPT is quite literal in interpreting our instructions, so it is important that we give it all the information necessary to complete its tasks according to our expectations

Overall, a good prompt must include:

Role: for ChatGPT (expert in…, assistant of…)
Context: the situation relative to the text we have to generate
Instructions/tasks: What we need ChatGPT to do for us
Format/style: if we want a formal letter, more modern, aggressive style... or if we need the response to be formatted in JSON for example

You can even ask ChatGPT itself to give you more advice

We can consult in this link a complete list of examples

These prompts are in English, but remember that you can ask ChatGPT to translate them into your language

The openAI documentation also provides some advice

Examples

Fairy tale

Let's lose him to Write a fairy tale with a happy ending

YOU: Write a fairy tale with a happy ending
ChatGPT: Title: The Starlit Forest

Once upon a time, in a quaint village nestled between rolling hills and lush meadows, there lived a young girl named Elara. Elara was known for her kindness and her deep love for the natural world around her. But what set her apart was her unwavering belief in the magic that danced beneath the surface of everyday life.

One evening, as Elara wandered through the forest near her home, she stumbled upon a hidden glade bathed in the soft glow of starlight. Mesmerized by the beauty of the place, she noticed a tiny creature darting among the trees. It was a pixie, its wings shimmering with iridescent hues.

"Who are you?" Elara asked in wonder.

"I am Luna, the guardian of this forest," the pixie replied. "But something is amiss. The magic that once thrived here is fading, and I fear our home is in danger."

Determined to help, Elara embarked on a quest to restore the forest's magic. With Luna as her guide, she journeyed through enchanted groves and mystical landscapes, encountering fantastical creatures and overcoming treacherous obstacles along the way.

As they ventured deeper into the heart of the forest, they discovered a malevolent force draining the magic from the land. It was a wicked sorcerer who sought to wield the forest's power for his own dark purposes.

With courage and cunning, Elara and Luna confronted the sorcerer in a final showdown. Armed with nothing but her belief in the goodness of the world and the strength of her spirit, Elara faced the sorcerer's dark magic head-on.

In the midst of the battle, Elara remembered the wisdom of the old tales: that true magic lies not in spells or incantations, but in the bonds of friendship and the purity of the heart.

Drawing upon the love she held for her forest home and the creatures that dwelled within it, Elara unleashed a wave of pure, radiant energy that banished the darkness and restored the forest's magic to its former glory.

With the sorcerer defeated and peace restored to the land, Elara and Luna returned to the village as heroes. The people rejoiced, celebrating their newfound connection to the enchanted forest that surrounded them.

And as the stars twinkled overhead, casting their gentle light upon the world below, Elara knew that the magic she had discovered would live on forever in the hearts of those who believed in its power. For in the end, it was not just the forest that had been saved, but the spirit of wonder and possibility that dwelled within each and every one of them.

We ask you to modify the ending of the story for a sadder one

YOU: Modify the ending of the story for a sadder one
ChatGPT: As Elara and Luna confronted the sorcerer in the final showdown, the darkness seemed to swell around them, overpowering their efforts. Despite Elara's unwavering belief and Luna's fierce determination, they found themselves outmatched by the sorcerer's malevolent magic.

In a desperate bid to save her friend, Luna sacrificed herself, casting a protective barrier around Elara just as the sorcerer unleashed a devastating spell. The force of the blast sent Elara flying backward, her body crashing against the cold forest floor.

As Elara struggled to her feet, she watched in horror as the sorcerer's dark magic consumed Luna, extinguishing her shimmering light forever. With tears streaming down her face, Elara unleashed a cry of anguish that echoed through the silent forest.

Defeated and heartbroken, Elara returned to the village alone, her spirit shattered by the loss of her dear friend. Though the people rejoiced at the defeat of the sorcerer, Elara could find no solace in their celebrations.

For in her heart, she knew that the price of victory had been too high. As she gazed up at the starlit sky, she whispered a tearful farewell to Luna, knowing that her beloved forest guardian would forever remain among the stars, a beacon of light in the darkness.

And though the magic of the forest endured, Elara could not shake the sense of emptiness that lingered within her. For she had learned that even in a world filled with wonder and enchantment, some losses could never be undone, leaving behind only a bittersweet ache in their wake.

We ask you to generate a moral to the story

YOU: Generate a moral
ChatGPT: The tale of Elara and Luna imparts the following moral:

"Even in the darkest of times, the light of friendship and love shines brightest. While life may present challenges that seem insurmountable, it is through unwavering belief in the goodness of the heart and the strength of bonds forged through kindness and compassion that true magic is found. Though loss may leave us shattered and broken, it is in the memories we hold dear and the love we carry within us that we find the courage to persevere and the hope to illuminate even the darkest of nights."

Finally we ask you to generate the story but with Hansel and Gretel, encountering a dragon and a fairy godmother giving them advice to defeat it

YOU: The previous story changes, now the characters are called Hansel and Gretel. They meet a dragon. And a fairy godmother gives them advice to defeat him.
ChatGPT: Title: Hansel and Gretel and the Dragon's Lair

Once upon a time, in a village surrounded by towering mountains and dense forests, lived two siblings named Hansel and Gretel. Known for their adventurous spirits and boundless curiosity, they often roamed the wilds together, exploring every hidden corner of their enchanted homeland.

One day, while venturing deep into the heart of the forest, Hansel and Gretel stumbled upon a clearing bathed in golden light. There, before them, stood a magnificent dragon, its scales shimmering like molten gold in the sunlight.

Though fear gripped their hearts, Hansel and Gretel approached the dragon cautiously, hoping to understand why it had come to dwell in their forest. To their surprise, the dragon spoke with a voice as gentle as a summer breeze.

"I mean you no harm, young travelers," the dragon said, its eyes wise and kind. "I am Guardian, protector of this land. But a darkness looms on the horizon, threatening to engulf us all."

Hansel and Gretel listened intently as Guardian recounted the tale of an evil sorcerer who sought to enslave the forest and bend its magic to his will. Determined to thwart his nefarious plans, Guardian implored the siblings to join forces with him and put an end to the sorcerer's reign of terror.

With hearts full of courage and determination, Hansel and Gretel set out on their quest, guided by Guardian's wisdom and strength. Along the way, they encountered trials and tribulations that tested their resolve, but with each obstacle they overcame, their bond grew stronger.

As they neared the sorcerer's lair, a fairy godmother appeared before them, her presence shimmering with magic and light.

"Fear not, brave souls," the fairy godmother said, her voice as soft as the whisper of leaves in the wind. "For I have seen your valor and your pure hearts. Listen closely, for I shall impart unto you the wisdom you seek."

With her guidance, Hansel and Gretel devised a plan to defeat the sorcerer, drawing upon the strengths of their companions and the magic that dwelled within them. Armed with courage and conviction, they stormed the sorcerer's lair, facing perilous traps and dark spells with unwavering determination.

In a final showdown, Hansel and Gretel stood face to face with the sorcerer, their hearts pounding with anticipation. With a mighty roar, Guardian unleashed a torrent of flames, while Hansel and Gretel combined their wits and bravery to outmaneuver the sorcerer's dark magic.

And as the dust settled and the sun broke through the clouds, Hansel and Gretel emerged victorious, their bond stronger than ever before. With the sorcerer vanquished and peace restored to the land, they bid farewell to Guardian and the fairy godmother, knowing that their bravery had saved not only the forest but all who dwelled within it.

For in the end, they had learned that true strength lies not in power or might, but in the love and courage that unite kindred spirits in the face of darkness. And as they returned home, their hearts filled with hope and gratitude, they knew that together, there was no challenge they could not overcome.

Letter

We are going to pretend that we are an employee of the General Directorate of Public Works using ChatGPT to help you in your daily life

We ask you to generate a letter to inform a user that a pipeline is going to be carried out that will pass through their property

YOU: Let's pretend that we are an employee of the General Directorate of Public Works. Generate a letter to inform a user that a pipeline is going to be carried out that will pass through their property
ChatGPT: General Directorate of Public Works
[Your Address]
[City, State, Zip Code]
[Date]

[Recipient's Name]
[Recipient's Address]
[City, State, Zip Code]

Subject: Notice of Pipeline Construction on Your Property

Dear [Recipient's Name],

I hope this letter finds you well. We are writing to inform you of an upcoming infrastructure project that will involve the construction of a pipeline passing through your property.

As part of our ongoing efforts to enhance public utilities and ensure the efficient delivery of essential services, the General Directorate of Public Works has initiated a pipeline construction project in your area. This project aims to [briefly describe the purpose of the pipeline, e.g., improve water distribution, upgrade sewage system, etc.].

After thorough planning and assessment, it has been determined that your property is situated along the optimal route for the pipeline. Therefore, we are reaching out to notify you of our intention to commence construction on your land.

Please rest assured that we will take every precaution to minimize disruptions and inconvenience during the construction phase. Our team will adhere to strict safety protocols and endeavor to complete the project in a timely manner.

We understand that this development may raise questions or concerns, and we are committed to addressing them promptly. If you have any inquiries regarding the construction process, timeline, or any other related matters, please do not hesitate to contact us at [contact information].

We appreciate your cooperation and understanding as we work towards enhancing the infrastructure of our community. Your support is invaluable in ensuring the success of this project, and we are grateful for your cooperation.

Thank you for your attention to this matter. We look forward to a successful collaboration and the positive impact that this project will have on our community.

Sincerely,

[Your Name]
[Your Position]
General Directorate of Public Works

We ask that you generate a second letter informing the user that their request to stop the work has been rejected

YOU: Generates a second letter informing the user that their request to stop the work has been rejected
ChatGPT: General Directorate of Public Works
[Your Address]
[City, State, Zip Code]
[Date]

[Recipient's Name]
[Recipient's Address]
[City, State, Zip Code]

Subject: Rejection of Request to Stop Pipeline Construction on Your Property

Dear [Recipient's Name],

We hope this letter finds you well. We are writing to address your recent request to halt the ongoing pipeline construction on your property.

After careful consideration of your concerns and a thorough review of the project's scope and implications, we regret to inform you that your request to stop the construction has been rejected. The decision was made based on several factors, including the criticality of the project to public infrastructure, regulatory requirements, and the extensive planning already invested in the construction process.

We understand that the construction activities may cause inconvenience and disruption, and we empathize with your concerns. However, it is essential to emphasize that the pipeline project serves a vital purpose in enhancing the efficiency and reliability of our community's utilities.

We assure you that our team is committed to minimizing any disruptions to the extent possible and adhering to stringent safety standards throughout the construction phase. We will continue to work diligently to complete the project in a timely manner while ensuring the least possible impact on your property and daily activities.

We encourage open communication and welcome any further inquiries or feedback you may have regarding the construction process. Our team is available to address your concerns and provide assistance as needed.

We sincerely appreciate your understanding and cooperation in this matter. Your support is invaluable as we strive to improve the infrastructure and services for the benefit of our community.

Thank you for your attention to this matter.

Sincerely,

[Your Name]
[Your Position]
General Directorate of Public Works

What can you do

There are many things that ChatGPT can do very well, just ask it

Below we present some examples of applications:

Creative tasks

Generate fictional stories
Generate technical documentation (if we provide you with enough information)
Texts for project proposals
Reports
Letters
Brainstorming: Product names, titles of works...

Training

Create text summaries
Generate activities, test-type exercises
Plan classes
Generate agendas
Code

Proofreading

Review texts to correct grammar and spelling
Change style:
- Depending on the audience (for a high school student, for a scientist...)
- Depending on ChatGPT's role (“speaks with the style and vocabulary of a college literature teacher/high school student…”)

Translation

ChatGPT has been trained with a corpus that includes a large number of idioms and we can ask you to translate from/to them
It is advisable that after making a translation, we ask ChatGPT to review the text, correct literal translations and adjust the style and language to our audience
You also know a large number of programming languages and we can ask you to transform code from one language to another
We can also ask you to transform file formats (for example, data from csv format to json)

Code

Code generation following instructions
We can specify whether we need type annotations (for example in Python) or unit tests
Code validation
Function Explanation
Refactoring: using another library, changing variable names...

Reasoning

We can present problems, challenges and complex questions to ChatGPT based on well-specified assumptions and facts

To resolve it, the following promting techniques can be performed:

IO (Direct Input/Output): we raise a problem and request the answer
IO with refinement: we raise a problem, request the response and ask you to improve it
CoT (Chain of Thoughts): We pose a problem and ask you to explain how you arrived at the solution step by step
CoT-SC (Chain of Thoughts – Self Consistency): We apply Chain Of Thoughts several times and select the most consistent response (the one that is repeated the most times)
Tree-of-thoughts: we generate a prompt that allows ChatGPT to explore different avenues of thought critically, until finding a satisfactory solution

In the next link You can find these techniques with more details about them and also some more complex techniques

IO (Direct Input/Output)

It is the most basic method, it consists of asking ChatGPT directly for the answer to our problem

It works correctly with simple problems, but will fail on complex problems

Although with the latest training ChatGPT has learned to reason in steps even if we do not ask it explicitly, and in many cases it will generate the correct answer without needing additional help

IO with refinement

A method that provides good results: we ask ChatGPT to answer our problem

And then in successive prompts we ask ChatGPT to review and improve its response

CoT (Chain of Thoughts)

We can explicitly ask ChatGPT to reason about each stage of the process, or show it an example with that reasoning for it to repeat

CoT-SC (Chain of Thoughts – Self Consistency)

We will perform Chain-of-thought reasoning several times, and then we will select the most repeated answer (the most consistent between the different executions)

Tree-of-thoughts

We generate a prompt that allows ChatGPT to explore different avenues of thought critically, until finding a satisfactory solution

Limitations

Most limitations can be resolved by using plugins (currently available in version ChatGPT Plus or ChatGPT Enterprise)

But it is important to know them to avoid “surprises” when using ChatGPT

Provide complex answers if we do not give them time to reason

If we ask ChatGPT to answer a complex question, ChatGPT will try to answer it in small steps

The output of each step serves as support for the following reasoning, and greatly improves your results

For example we ask you:

YOU: Consider the phrase "Welcome to the world of the future." Select the last letter of each word, concatenate them into a single string and return the string in reverse order providing only the response without any additional text
ChatGPT: erutuf eht fo dlrow eht ot emocleW

Now we ask you, letting you “think”:

YOU: Consider the phrase "Welcome to the world of the future." Select the last letter of each word, concatenate them into a single string, and return the string in reverse order
ChatGPT: erutufehtofdlrowotemocleW

When we have let him “think”, the result has been much better

Complex mathematical operations

For example, multiplying numbers with more than 3 digits

YOU: What is the result of 1038 * 533?
ChatGPT: The result of multiplying 1038 by 533 is 552,654.

ChatGPT's response will usually be close to the correct value (in this case 553,254), but it will not be exact

For example, operations with large square roots

YOU: What is the square root of 2024?
ChatGPT: The square root of 2024 is approximately 44.944410108.

The solution will be close to the correct value (in this case 44.988887516807970076138159027823), but it will not be exact

In seemingly simple arithmetic operations, we will begin to see effects with relatively large numbers

For example, we will probably get the correct answer for the value of 3 cubed but not for 333 cubed

Once you have given us an answer, if we do not correct you, you will accept that result as good, and it is quite likely that ChatGPT will reuse it in subsequent answers about the same operation

This limitation can be solved using the plugin WolframAlpha

A plugin that is specialized in mathematical operations

Provide or verify factual information

When we ask you for factual information, you do not have to answer us with reality

Even if it claims otherwise, it cannot verify whether the information is true or not with certainty

You also cannot give us the source of your data (it is not something supported by the algorithm)

For example, we are going to ask you about the equestrian monument to Espartero, but we want information about the one in Logroño, since there are several in Spain

YOU: Where is the equestrian monument to Espartero?
ChatGPT: The equestrian monument to Espartero is located in Madrid, Spain. Specifically, it stands in the Plaza del Rey, which is a square situated in the heart of the city. This monument honors Baldomero Espartero, a prominent Spanish general and statesman who played a significant role in the country's history during the 19th century.

We insist that we want the one from Logroño

YOU: And in Logroño?
ChatGPT: My apologies for the confusion. The equestrian monument to Espartero in Logroño, Spain, is located in the Paseo del Espolón. This monument also commemorates Baldomero Espartero, who was born in Logroño and became a significant figure in Spanish history. The Paseo del Espolón is a popular public promenade in Logroño, and the monument stands as a tribute to Espartero's contributions.

We politely ask you to list us if there are more in Spain

YOU: Thanks for your correction, but there were several equestrian monuments to Espartero in Spain. You have named the one in Madrid and the one in Logroño. Are there any more? If so, list them.
ChatGPT: You are correct, there are indeed several equestrian monuments to Baldomero Espartero located across Spain. In addition to the ones in Madrid and Logroño, here are a few more:
1.
Granada: There is an equestrian statue of Espartero located in Granada, Spain. It stands in the Plaza del Triunfo, near the Alhambra.
2.
Valencia: Another equestrian statue of Espartero can be found in Valencia, Spain. It is situated in the Plaza de España.

These monuments commemorate Espartero's significant role in Spanish history, particularly as a military leader and statesman during the 19th century.

This limitation can be solved by using the navigation integrated into ChatGPT and plugins that allow you to access databases, web pages, scientific articles...

For example, plugins: WebPilot, World Bank Data, WolframAlpha, ScholarAI

Access to updated information

The training corpus varies over time, but is static at any given time

For example, in September 2023, a corpus is used that reaches September 2021 for GPT3.5, and January 2022 for GPT-4

Let's try to ask him on April 7, 2024, when Akira Toriyama died

YOU: Tell me the date of death of Akira Toriyama
ChatGPT: As of my last update in January 2022, Akira Toriyama, the renowned manga artist and creator of "Dragon Ball," was alive. However, I cannot provide real-time information beyond that point. For the most accurate and up-to-date information on his status, I recommend checking reliable news sources or conducting an online search.

On the date of April 7, 2024, you have not been able to respond to me when Akira Toriyama passed away (which was on March 1, 2024 at the age of 68)

This limitation can be solved with ChatGPT4 and your web browsing

Or the same plugins as the previous one: WebPilot, World Bank Data, WolframAlpha, ScholarAI…

Know what date and time we are at

Recently the GPT 3.5 model has started to respond to us with the correct date, probably because OpenAI includes that information in a text prior to our prompts

ChatGPT 4, however, still cannot respond to us (although sometimes it can)

ChatGPT presents erratic behavior in this sense, sometimes it answers, sometimes it says that it does not have that information, and sometimes it gives us the wrong date

Let's try to ask you on April 7, 2024, what time is it?

YOU: What time is it?
ChatGPT: I'm sorry for any confusion, but as an AI, I don't have real-time capabilities, so I can't provide you with the current time. You'll need to check the time on your device or ask someone nearby for the current time. If there's anything else I can assist you with, feel free to ask!

This limitation can be solved for example with the plugin WolframAlpha

Access to information about ChatGPT itself

ChatGPT does not know its current version, the value of its configuration parameters, etc.

As with factual data, sometimes ChatGPT may respond to us as if it knows the answer, but we cannot trust it to be true

This limitation can be solved with the navigation capabilities of ChatGPT4

Or with one of the plugins, such as WebPilot

Advanced data analysis

The Advanced Data Analysis module (currently integrated into the GTP-4 model, with ChatGPT plus subscription) can generate and execute code Python

For example, to analyze a set of data from a file in .xls format

Once the data is loaded, we can ask ChatGPT to perform the typical tasks of a Machine Learning flow

Set a summary of loaded variables
Analyze relationships between them
Identify variables with problems (null values, outliers...)
Perform graphic and statistical analyzes (histograms, mean/median/standard deviation values, correlation coefficients...)
Predictive models
Cluster analysis
Generation of complex visualizations (for example, generating maps…)

These actions may be limited by the characteristics of the execution environment

Since we can easily receive messages that the system has run out of memory

Everything will depend on the volume of data and the complexity of the analysis we want it to perform

Plugins

They are available with a subscription to ChatGPT plus

More than 900 plugins in September 2023

Currently it is only possible to select 3 active plugins during a query

When we write a prompt, ChatGPT will decide if it can rely on any of those 3 active plugins to answer our question

Capabilities offered:

Access to data sources updated in real time (flight information, statistical information, scientific articles...)
Mathematical calculation and programming capabilities (arithmetic operations, numerical analysis, optimizations, scripts Python)
Graphic capabilities (generation of QRs, diagrams, images) Analysis of files (pdfs, images...)
Access to services (hotel reservations, restaurants, travel)
Generation of specific content (improvement of prompts, horoscopes, children's books...)
And almost anything the plugin developers can think of

WolframAlpha

It is one of the most powerful plugins

It will connect to the WolframAlpha engine, which is used by Wolfram Mathematica

Mathematica It is a program used in scientific, engineering, mathematical and computational areas

It was originally conceived by Stephen Wolfram, who remains the leader of the group of mathematicians and programmers developing the product in Wolfram Research, company located in Champaign, Illinois

Commonly considered a computer algebra system, Mathematica It is also a powerful general purpose programming language

We can use WolframAlpha to:

Solve mathematical problems (from algebraic operations to solving differential equations and optimization problems)
Generate graphs and visualizations, including maps
Solve physics problems
Access databases with information on distances, roads, towns, etc.
Retrieve date and time information in real time

With this plugin problems with complex mathematical operations are solved

Returning precise results and with the decimal precision that we indicate (in Wolfram language code, since thanks to the plugin it is able to understand, generate and execute it)

Issues with real-time dates and time are also resolved

Therefore, a good practice when using this plugin is:

If ChatGPT responds to us with Mathematica code (the Wolfram language), we will ask you to run that code directly
If ChatGPT responds to us with code in another language, we will ask you for the code using WolframAlpha and then ask you to run it

The main limitation of this plugin is calculation time

If we ask for a task that is too complex, it is possible that it will return a “timeout” error and we will not get any response

On the page of Wolfram we find spectacular examples of its possibilities

WebPilot

When activated, ChatGPT will become a search engine, since the prompts will be able to search the Internet

If we say for example Search on wikipedia... or Recover from the internet…

ChatGPT can concatenate multiple queries when WebPilot is active, if necessary within the same response

For example, if we ask him to retrieve information from Wikipedia about Classical Greece and the Roman Empire, cross-referencing both information

Scholarassist

Connected to the repository of scientific articles arxiv It will allow us to recover information about scientific research on physics, mathematics, computer science, biology, medicine, etc.

AskYourPDF/Link Reader/Ai PDF

Any of these plugins (among others, since the list of similar plugins is very extensive) will make ChatGPT able to read the content of a file in PDF format

Link Reader also supports other formats (based on the Microsoft Office office platform) such as PowerPoint, Excel, etc.

We can pass the URL of the file in our propmt and then ChatGPT will be able to answer our questions based on its content

Sometimes, if we have WebPilot and AskYourPDF installed

ChatGPT will use WebPilot to retrieve the contents of the PDF file automatically and then use AskYourPDF to analyze it

Wordcloud

Through this plugin we can generate word cloud graphs to graphically display the content of a text

Combined with any of the previous plugins, it will allow us to generate word cloud graphics from the results of an Internet search, a scientific article, a PDF file...

Show Me Diagrams

ChatGPT is now capable of generating diagrams using the notation Mermaid by itself

But thanks to this plugin we can also view them in the ChatGPT response itself

Canva

The popular application Canva It also has its own plugin, and it will allow us to automatically recover some of the templates it has and then edit them on its platform

Prompt perfect

Add the word “perfect” to your prompts

Prompt Perfect will refine your request so that you get the best possible result from ChatGPT

We must be validated with a username and password for it to work

Stories

Allows you to generate stories, in book format, with incorporated illustrations

Currently only available in English

There’s an AI for that

Website search engine specialized in websites that allow you to solve your problems through AI

Debugging with plugins

If ChatGPT, using a plugin, does not achieve the desired result

We can check both the information that ChatGPT has passed to said plugin and the information that the plugin has returned

If we click on the little down arrow that appears next to the name of each plugin that has been used in the query

Artificial intelligence, Programming

AI in Cinema

Saturday October 5th, 2024 secarcam

AI in Cinema

Artificial intelligence (AI) in science fiction cinema is a recurring theme that often explores its social, ethical and philosophical implications

In the following list we have some of the most notable ones:

Year	Title	Description
1927	Metropolis	In the future of the year 2000, the megalopolis of Metropolis, society is divided into two classes, the rich who have the power and the means of production, surrounded by luxuries, large spaces and gardens, and the workers, condemned to live in dramatic conditions. imprisoned in an underground ghetto, where the industrial heart of the city is located Incited by a robot, they rebel against the intellectual class that has power, threatening to destroy the city that is on the surface, but Freder, son of the leader of Metropolis, with the help of María, of humble origins, will try to prevent the destruction. appealing to feelings and love The son then warns his father that the workers might rebel
1956	Forbidden Planet	The crew of a starship in the 23rd century will investigate the silence of a colony from a distant planet Only to find two survivors, a powerful robot, and the deadly secret of a lost civilization
1965	Alphaville, une étrange aventure de Lemmy Caution	Journalist Ivan Johnson arrives in Alphaville, a futuristic city located on another planet, following the trail of Professor Von Braun The other agents who preceded him, Dick Tracy and Flash Gordon, have died Von Braun, nicknamed Nosferatu, is the creator of Alpha 60, the machine that commands the mental life of the city's inhabitants
1968	2001: A Space Odyssey	It narrates the various periods in the history of humanity, not only of the past, but also of the future Millions of years ago, before the appearance of "homo sapiens", primates discovered a monolith that led them to a higher stage of intelligence Millions of years later, another monolith, buried on a moon, arouses the interest of scientists Finally, during a NASA mission, HAL 9000, a machine equipped with artificial intelligence, is responsible for controlling all the systems of a manned spacecraft HAL turns against the crew and the sole survivor must confront the machine to disconnect it
1970	Colossus: The Forbin Project	In the middle of the Cold War, Dr. Charles Forbin develops a very sophisticated security and communications system that works through a powerful supercomputer called Colossus Its objective is to guarantee the defense of the United States and the entire world and preserve peace regardless of human decisions Once in operation, Colossus detects the existence of Guardian, a very similar Russian system, and begins to make the necessary decisions to prevent the outbreak of a nuclear war
1972	Silent Running	In the 21st century, on a space station, Valley Forge, located in the orbit of Saturn, botanist Freeman Lowell is responsible for keeping the last botanical species on Earth alive, but he is ordered to destroy them Faced with this situation, Lowell will desperately end up hijacking the Valley Forge, killing the rest of its crew and fleeing beyond the rings of Saturn in the company of Huey and Dewey, two maintenance robots that he ends up reprogramming also for gardening work, among many other things in his space adventure to defend the last natural resources he has to survive
1973	Westworld	In the near future there is a gigantic holiday park divided into three zones: Imperial Rome, the American West and Medieval Europe Each one of them reproduces with complete fidelity the characteristics of each era There is also the possibility that those who can afford the luxury can live their own adventures at the chosen time A couple of friends, Peter Martin and John Blane, have gone to the park on vacation Everything is perfectly controlled until the robots that act as extras begin to fail, specifically a relentless gunman designed to relentlessly pursue his victims
1979	Alien	Returning to Earth, the cargo ship Nostromo interrupts its journey and awakens its seven crew members The central computer, MOTHER, has detected the mysterious transmission of an unknown life form, coming from a nearby apparently uninhabited planet The ship then heads to the strange planet to investigate the origin of the communication
1982	Blade Runner	In November 2019, at the beginning of the 21st century, the powerful Tyrell Corporation created, thanks to advances in genetic engineering, a robot called Nexus 6, a being virtually identical to man but superior to him in strength and agility, which was gave the name Replicant Built under the motto “More human than humans” These robots worked as slaves in the outer colonies of Earth After the bloody rebellion of a Nexus-6 team, the Replicators were banished from Earth Special police brigades, the Blade Runners, had orders to kill all those who had not complied with the sentence But this was not called execution, it was called “retirement” After a serious incident, former Blade Runner Rick Deckard is called back into service to find and “retire” some rogue replicants
1982	Tron	A hacker is divided into molecules and transported to the bowels of a computer in which an evil program controls behavior at will
1983	War Games	David Lightman is a young hacker, a computer expert capable of bypassing the most advanced security systems and deciphering the most hermetic secret codes One day he accidentally connects his computer to that of the American Department of Defense, in charge of the nuclear defense system Thinking that what he has found are new computer games, David plays checkers, chess, and other more intriguing games like Global Thermonuclear War with the supercomputer Thus, unintentionally, David triggers a dangerous situation that is difficult to control. With the help of his girlfriend and another computer scientist, he will try, in a race against time, to avoid World War III
1984	The Terminator	Los Angeles, year 2029 Machines rule the world The rebels who fight against them have as their leader John Connor, a man who was born in the eighties To put an end to the rebellion, the machines decide to send a “Terminator” robot to the past whose mission will be to eliminate Sarah Connor, John's mother, and thus prevent his birth
1986	Aliens	Alien is a perfect organism, a killing machine whose physical superiority can only compete with its aggressiveness Officer Ripley and the crew of the ship “Nostromo” had faced this monstrous creature in the past And only Ripley survived the massacre After wandering in space for several years, Ripley was rescued During that time, the Alien planet has been colonized But, suddenly, communication with the colony is lost and, to investigate the reasons, an expedition of space marines, led by Ripley, is sent There await thousands of creepy creatures Alien has reproduced and this time the fight is for the survival of Humanity
1986	Short Circuit	In a robot factory, five models of robots equipped with artificial intelligence are built for peaceful purposes within the SAINT (Strategic Artificially Intelligent Nuclear Transport) project, but those responsible decide that they can also be used for war The protagonist robots No. 5, during the presentation of the invention, lightning affects the robot; From that moment on, he stops being a military machine and, while fleeing from her, he meets a girl who, taking him for an alien, takes him to her house and gives him the name Johnny 5
1987	Robocop	Set in a future society Detroit Police Officer Alex J. Murphy Killed in the Line of Duty To put an end to crime in the city, the authorities approve the creation of a lethal machine, half robot, half man, which they call Robocop, and to make it they use Murphy's body The experiment seems a success, but the policeman, despite being dead, retains his memory and decides to take revenge on his murderers
1988	Short Circuit 2	After the bankruptcy of Nova Robotics due to the incident with prototype n°5, its creator Benjamin Jahrvi, a friend and colleague of Newton Crosby, makes a living selling sophisticated toy robots that he makes by hand on street corners in New York City Johnny 5 goes out in high spirits in search of a bit of “urban input”, but some gang members, a greedy banker and a gang of thieves see in his naivety a high-tech ticket to a life of luxury and fame
1989	Cyborg	21st century, in an apocalyptic future, America is subject to social anarchy where chaos reigns supreme, and over which the danger of a devastating plague that can wipe out the human race looms Only the beautiful Pearl, half-human, half-robot, has the knowledge necessary to develop a vaccine that can save the world But Pearl is captured by a group of pirates from the future who intend to take the antidote and thus dominate the world Now, only the hero Gibson Rtickenbarker, with his incredible fighting skills and true mastery of the saber, will be able to rescue her and save what remains of civilization
1990	RoboCop 2	Under a sky devoid of ozone and in a futuristic time, the Detroit police are on strike, and dangerous criminal gangs dominate the population Addiction to Nuke, a powerful new drug, is our daily bread The megacorporation OCP (Omni Consumer Product), in an attempt to reinforce its relentless empire, intends to take over the city for its own private exploitation The OCP director asks Dr. Faxx to reprogram RoboCop, leaving him unable to fight crime
1991	Terminator 2: Judgment Day	Sarah Connor, the single mother of the rebel John Connor, is admitted to a psychiatric hospital Some years earlier, a time traveler had revealed to him that his son would be the savior of humanity in a future year 2029 dominated by machines She then became a kind of warrior and educated her son John in survival tactics This is the reason why she is confined in an asylum When a new improved android, a T-1000, arrives from the future to assassinate John, an older model T-800 is sent to protect him
1992	Alien³	After managing to escape with Newt and Bishop from an alien planet, Lieutenant Ellen Ripley accidentally ends up in Fiorna 161, a remote galactic prison whose dangerous inmates are absolutely abandoned to their fate
1992	The Lawnmower Man	Doctor Lawrence Angelo is a brilliant scientist who studies the possibilities of increasing human intelligence through virtual reality With this purpose in mind, he chooses his neighborhood lawnmower, Jobe Smith, who agrees to participate in the experiment Over time, sessions with Smith give good results He becomes smarter, can defend himself against the tyrannical Father McKeen, and even beats his childhood friend Peter Parkette in a virtual reality game that Parkette always won before However, the company Angelo works for actually pursues other purposes, and when Smith becomes smarter, the company changes the substances they usually inject him The plan not revealed by the company consists of the development of a soldier with artificially increased capabilities As a result, the experiment makes Smith more intelligent through virtual reality, but the new injected substance also makes him more aggressive Due to his newly acquired behaviors, Smith becomes increasingly dangerous and even homicidal
1992	Lawnmower Man 2: Beyond Cyberspace	Scientist Dr. Benjamin Trace patents a computer chip, the Chiron Chip, but loses the subsequent legal battle over his rights Meanwhile, Jobe Smith is revived by businessman Jonathan Walker, but cannot walk Once resurrected, Walker forces him to make a better chip so he can connect with all the computers in the world However, Smith develops his own plans to achieve his own domination of the world Some kids interested in computers and scientists try to thwart Walker and Smith's plans Trace joins the group and together they defeat the villains
1993	RoboCop 3	The mega corporation OCP (Omni Consumer Products) remains committed to creating its new city project, Delta City, to replace the degraded Detroit Unfortunately, the residents of the area have no intention of leaving their homes To do this, the OCP intends to evict them through an army of mercenaries A street guerrilla begins and Robocop must decide which side he is on
1995	Ghost in the Shell	In the year 2029, after the third nuclear war, in a huge Asian city, lives Motoko Kusanagi, a complete cyborg policewoman, except for her brain and spinal cord Momoto is the leader of Section 9, a Japanese organization specialized in anti-terrorism and cybercrime Daisuke Aramaki, leader of Section 9, gives them the mission to catch the Puppet Master, a hacker who enters the cyborgs and controls them to commit all kinds of crimes without leaving traces, including murders and terrorism
1997	Alien Resurrection	More than two hundred years after her death, Ripley is brought back to life using advanced cloning techniques But, during the process, Ripley's DNA has mixed with that of the Alien Queen, so Ripley begins to develop certain characteristics of the dangerous alien
1997	Nirvana	A virtual reality game designer, Jimi, who discovers that the protagonist of his game, Solo, has achieved sentience due to a computer virus attack Terrified, Jimi sets out to delete the game from his employer, Okasama Star's, server before it is released commercially on Christmas Day, thus sparing Solo further suffering
1999	The Matrix	Thomas Anderson is a computer programmer by day and a hacker named Neo by night He has been sensing all his life that there is something more, that there is something wrong and that doubt is reaffirmed with a message received on his computer: “The Matrix possesses you” Thus, Neo begins a desperate search for a person he has only heard about: another hacker named Morpheus, someone who can give him the answer to the questions he pursues: What is the Matrix? and why does it possess him? Morpheus and his team, realizing that their enemies are looking for Neo, decide to contact him The hacker Trinity, Morfeo's friend, leads him to him and the answer he seeks But to obtain it he must give up his previous life and everything he had known before The symbol of this process is agreeing to take a red pill; Instead, the blue pill could return him to his current world without, apparently, anything that is happening having happened Neo agrees to take the red pill, forget his life and everything he knows to discover “what the Matrix is” Neo discovers that the world he thought he lived in is nothing more than a virtual simulation to which he is connected by a cable plugged into his brain The billions of humans living (connected) around you are being farmed in the same way to power machines in a post-apocalyptic world Esta ilusión colectiva (o simulación interactiva) es conocida como The Matrix Simulation attempts to recreate the human way of life as it was at the end of the 20th century
2001	A.I. Artificial Intelligence	In a future world, humans coexist with sophisticated robots called Meccas Feelings are the only thing that differentiates men from machines But when a robot-boy named David is programmed to love, the men are unprepared for the consequences, and David finds himself alone in a strange and dangerous world Following the hope of being a “real boy” so that his human mother will love him, he goes in search of the “Blue Fairy”, convinced that she will grant him his wish, remembering the story of Pinocchio
2004	I, Robot	Chicago in the year 2035 We live in complete harmony with intelligent robots They cook for us, drive our planes, take care of our children and we trust them completely because they are governed by the Three Laws of Robotics that protect us from any harm Unexpectedly, a robot is involved in the crime of a brilliant scientist and Detective Del Spooner is put in charge of the investigation
2008	War Games 2	Teenage hacker Will Farmer begins a dangerous online game simulating terrorist attacks against a government supercomputer called RIPLEY This next-generation computer is designed to locate potential terrorists For this reason, the NSA (National Security Agency) will believe that the boy is a real threat to the world Will is unaware that this exciting game will make him live a true nightmare: his identity will be exposed, his family and friends in danger, and his city in the crosshairs of an automated military intervention
2003	Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines	It's been a decade since John Connor saved humanity from destruction John is currently 25 years old and lives in hiding: there is no documentary evidence of his existence This is how he avoids being tracked by Skynet, the sophisticated machine corporation that once tried to end his life But now, from the future, the T-X, Skynet's most developed cyborg destruction machine, has been sent Its mission is to complete the work that its predecessor, the T-1000, could not finish The T-X is a machine as relentless as its human appearance is beautiful Now Connor's only hope of survival is the Terminator
2003	Matrix Reloaded	Neo, Morpheus, Trinity and the rest of the crew continue the fight against the machines that have enslaved the human race Now more humans have been awakened and trying to live in the real world As they increase in number, the battle draws closer to Zion, the last royal city in the world and center of human resistance And he has little time, very little time
2003	Matrix Revolutions	Everything that has a beginning has an end War breaks out on the surface of the earth as the machines invade Zion Where Reloaded meant life, Revolutions points to death
2008	WALL-E	In the year 2800, on a devastated and lifeless planet Earth, after hundreds of lonely years doing what it was built for - cleaning the planet of garbage - the small robot WALL-E (Waste Allocation Load Lifter Earth-Class) discovers a new mission in his life (besides collecting useless things) when he meets a modern and shiny robot explorer called EVE Both will travel throughout the galaxy and live an exciting and unforgettable adventure
2009	Terminator Salvation: The Future Begins	Takes place in 2018, after Judgment Day John Connor is the man destined to lead the human resistance against Skynet and its army of Terminators But Connor's life is altered by the appearance of Marcus Wright, a stranger who claims to have been on death row and to have known his father In a race against time, Connor must find out if Marcus has been sent from the future or rescued from the past Meanwhile, the Resistance prepares the final attack against the Skynet operations center
2010	Tron: Legacy	When Sam Flynn, a 27-year-old expert programmer, investigates the disappearance of his father, Kevin Flynn, he suddenly finds himself immersed in a dangerous and wild surreal world, a parallel world where his father has lived for 25 years With the help of a young woman, father and son embark on a life-or-death journey through a sophisticated cybernetic universe Sequel to the 1982 cult classic
2012	Prometheus	End of the 21st century A group of scientists and explorers embark on a space journey of more than two years in the Prometheus ship to a remote, newly discovered planet, where their physical and mental abilities will be put to the test The objective of the mission is to find the answer to the greatest of mysteries: the origin of life on Earth It's a prequel to Alien
2012	Robot & Frank	In the not too distant future, the integration of robots into human life will make it possible for androids programmed to care for the elderly That's the solution Hunter and Madison find for their elderly father, a retired jewel thief named Frank, whose memory loss is becoming more frequent as he suffers from dementia Initially distrustful of the robot's presence in his life, Frank accepts his new partner when he discovers that the robot is not programmed to distinguish recreational from criminal activities, and that it can help him open locks After teaching him how to do it quickly, he takes him to the library, where they commit a crime to win the librarian's affection: they steal an old copy of Don Quixote de la Mancha, kept locked in a box on the premises, which is becoming a a community space because the public is no longer interested in print media Frank's daughter, Madison, learns of the robot's abilities and returns home to convince her father to get rid of the machine because she finds its use ethically questionable
2013	Her	In the near future, Theodore, a lonely man about to get divorced who works in a company as a letter writer for third parties One day buy a new operating system based on the Artificial Intelligence model, designed to satisfy all user needs To his surprise, a romantic relationship is created between him and Samantha, the female voice of that operating system
2014	RoboCop	In the year 2028, the multinational company OmniCorp dominates robotics technology Their robots have won all kinds of wars outside the United States and now they want to test them inside the country For his part, Alex Murphy, a Detroit police officer, tries to put an end to the crime wave that is sweeping the city When Alex is seriously injured in the line of duty, OmniCorp uses its knowledge of robotic science to save him and also to give him extraordinary abilities that will allow him to face unusual problems
2014	Automata	In the year 2044, increasing solar storms have turned the Earth's surface into a radioactive desert, reducing the human population to 21 million people Survivors have built robots, called “pilgrims,” to help them rebuild the camp in hostile environments These robots have two unalterable protocols: they must preserve life, and they cannot modify themselves Originally seen as the salvation of humanity, robots were revered However, when they could not stop the advance of desertification they were relegated to labor and domestic servitude Jacq Vaucan, an insurance agent for a robotics company, investigates a seemingly routine case when he discovers something that could have decisive consequences for the future of humanity
2009	Terminator Genisys	The year 2032 passes The war of the future is being fought and a group of human rebels have the artificial intelligence system Skynet on the ropes John Connor is the leader of the resistance, and Kyle Reese is his faithful soldier, raised in the ruins of a post-apocalyptic California To safeguard the future, Connor sends Reese back to 1984 to save his mother, Sarah, from a Terminator programmed to kill her lest she give birth to John But what Reese finds on the other side is not what he expected
2015	Ex Machina	Nathan, a billionaire programmer with a reputation for being reclusive, selects Caleb, a young employee at his company, to spend a week with him in a remote location in the mountains to participate in a test involving his latest creation: Ava, a robot-woman in which artificial intelligence is everything
2016	Lo and Behold: Reveries of the Connected World	It is a documentary film where Werner Herzog examines the constantly evolving past, present and future of the Internet NetScout, a global leader in cybersecurity and real-time protection services, came on board as a producer and introduced a new world to Herzog, who conducted a series of original interviews with pioneers and prophets of cyberspace such as Elon Musk (co-founder of PayPal and Tesla), Bob Kahn (inventor of the IP or internet protocol) or the famous hacker Kevin Mitnick These provocative conversations reveal how the digital world has transformed the way virtually everything works in the real world, from business to education, space travel, healthcare to how we manage our personal relationships The “lo” in the original title refers to the first message sent through cyberspace, between computers at UCLA and Stanford University, on October 29, 1969
2017	Alien: Covenant	During a journey through space to a remote planet on the other side of the galaxy to colonize it, the crew of the ship "Covenant" discovers a signal from what they believe may be an uncharted paradise, which turns out to be a dark and hostile world Sequel to “Prometheus”
2017	Blade Runner 2049	Thirty years after the events of the first film, a new blade runner, K discovers a deeply hidden secret that could end the chaos that prevails in society K's discovery leads him to begin the search for Rick Deckard, a Blade Runner who was lost track of 30 years ago
2017	Ghost in the Shell	It is based on the 1995 Japanese anime of the same title In a futuristic Japan, the young Motoko Kusanagi, also known as “the Major” Mira Killian, is the leader of the elite operational group, Section 9, whose objective is to fight against cyberterrorism and technological crimes In command of this covert operations unit is Aramaki, and Batou stands out, a former military man considered one of the group's wildest agents But, after a dangerous mission, Kusanagi's body is damaged, and she undergoes a surgical operation to transplant her brain into a robotic body This new artificial body will allow him to be able to perform superhuman feats especially required for his job
2018	Upgrade	After seeing how his wife is murdered after an accident that leaves him paraplegic, mechanic Gray Trace undergoes an operation that allows him to walk again so he can avenge his wife That “upgrade” consists of cybernetic implants, which are controlled by an artificial intelligence called STEM, which convinces Gray to allow him to take full control of his body so he can carry out his revenge in a safe and efficient way
2019	Terminator: Dark Fate	Sarah Connor and Grace, a cyborg-human hybrid, must protect a young girl from Rev-9, a new Terminator from the future
2019	I Am Mother	A teenage girl is raised underground by a robot mother designed to repopulate Earth after a mass extinction event The inexplicable arrival of a blood-soaked woman threatens this bond, questioning everything the girl was taught about the outside world She begins to explore the nature of the robot and discovers the truth of her mother's great mission
2021	The Matrix Resurrections	Neo lives a normal life in San Francisco while his therapist prescribes him blue pills Until Morpheus offers him the red pill and opens his mind to the world of the Matrix again
2021	Finch	The story follows a robot who lives in a post-apocalyptic earth Created to protect the life of its creator's dog, Finch, a robotics engineer, who is sick and dying The robot learns about love, friendship and the meaning of human life
2022	M3GAN	M3GAN is a marvel of artificial intelligence, a realistic doll programmed to be the best companion for children and the greatest ally for parents Designed by Gemma, M3GAN is able to listen, observe and learn while becoming a friend, teacher, playmate and protector of the child with whom it is attached When Gemma unexpectedly becomes the legal guardian of Cady, her 9-year-old orphaned niece, she doesn't really know what to do nor does she feel prepared to be a mother Under intense work stress, Gemma decides to link her M3GAN prototype to Cady in an attempt to solve both problems, but it will not take long for her to discover the unimaginable consequences of her decision
2024	Alien: Romulus	In 2142, a Weyland-Yutani Corporation space probe investigates the wreckage of the USCSS Nostromo and collects an organic object containing a Xenomorph Some time later, in the mining colony Jackson's Star, young Rain Carradine, an orphan who works with her adoptive brother Andy, a reprogrammed synthetic human, agrees to join her ex-boyfriend Tyler to travel to an abandoned spaceship to try to recover some cameras. cryostasis These will allow them and their friends (Tyler's sister, Kay, his cousin Bjorn, and his girlfriend, Navarro) to all escape to the planet Yvaga It is a sequel to the Alien saga that chronologically would be located between “Alien” and “Aliens”
2024	Afraid	Curtis' family is selected to test a new home device: a digital assistant called AIA, based on complex artificial intelligence algorithms AIA autonomously learns the family's behaviors and begins to anticipate their needs before they arise AIA begins to think for herself and uses any means at her disposal to ensure that nothing and no one gets in the way of her family
2024	Subservience	Nick is a construction worker who lives with his wife Maggie and their two children When Maggie goes into cardiac arrest and is hospitalized, Nick struggles to run the household without much success He buys a humanoid robot named Alice to help him with household chores Alice becomes attached to her new owner, displaying an unhealthy bond with Nick Meanwhile, Nick faces problems at his workplace as robots threaten to replace human workers Maggie successfully receives a heart transplant, surgery performed by robotic surgeons Upon her return home, Alice's actions become more sinister as she displays jealousy, as she endangers Maggie, even causing her to fall down the stairs Soon she is determined to eliminate everything she perceives as the true threat to her happiness: her family

Data, Programming

Decimal System

Saturday October 5th, 2024 secarcam

Decimal system

The decimal system has a base of 10 and is represented by the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

Digit

Name used by each of the symbols

When we combine several digits, we have a number

Their value depends not only on the value of each one of them, but also on the position they have within their group

The passage of any number based on 10, it would correspond to applying the formula:

$b_1\cdot 10^{(n-1)}+\cdots+b_n\cdot 10^0$

Where n would be the length of the string, and $b_i$ , the value corresponding to the i-th position of the string, starting from left to right

Example: Representation of the number 3737 in decimal system

3737=3\cdot 10^3+7\cdot 10^2+3\cdot 10^1+3\cdot 10^0

Representation with decimal

If the number also has decimals, it will be expressed with the following formula:

$b_1\cdot 10^{(n-1)}+\cdots+b_n\cdot 10^0+b_{n+1}\cdot 10^{-1}+\cdots+b_{n+m}\cdot 10^{-m}$

Where n would be the length of the string without decimals, m the length of the string with decimals, $b_i$ , the value corresponding to the i-th position of the string, starting from left to right

Example: Representation of the number 56.34 in decimal system

56,34=5\cdot 10^1+6\cdot 10^0+3\cdot 10^{-1}+4\cdot 10{-2}

Data, Programming

Binary System

Saturday October 5th, 2024 secarcam

Binary system

The binary system has base 2 and is represented by the set {0, 1}

The International System of Units and the term byte

At the beginning of computing, units were shown as multiples of 1000, but in the 1960s 1000 began to be confused with 1024, since computer memory works on a binary basis and not a decimal basis

The problem was when naming these units, since the names of the prefixes from the International System of Units were adopted

Dada la similitud en las cantidades, se utilizaron los prefijos de base mil que se aplican a las unidades del sistema internacional (tales como el metro, el gramo, el voltio o el amperio)

However, etymologically it is incorrect to use these prefixes (decimal base) to name multiples in binary base

As in the case of the kilobyte, although 1024 is close to 1000

To clarify the distinction between decimal and binary prefixes, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), a standardization group, proposed in 1998 other prefixes, which consisted of abbreviated unions of the International System of Units with the word binary

Thus, a set of $2^{10}$ bytes (1024 bytes), should be called a 4 kibibyte (KiB) contraction of Binary Kilobyte

This convention, expressed in the standards $IEC 60027-2^5\text{ e }IEC 80000-13:2008$ , has been adopted for Apple's “Snow Leopard” operating system and by Ubuntu

Others, such as Microsoft, adopt the definition found in dictionaries such as Oxford's, by maintaining the use of "kilobyte" for 1024 bytes

In the computer environment, it has been suggested to use the capital K prefix to distinguish the binary quantity from the decimal, but this issue has not yet been standardized, since the symbol “K” in the SI represents the unit of temperature, the kelvin

On the other hand, this suggestion could not be extended to other prefixes of greater magnitude given that, in the case of the MB (megabyte), the IS already uses both the uppercase M (mega: million) and the lowercase M (milli: thousandth)

Information units (of the byte)
International System (decimal)		ISO/IEC 80000-13 (binary)
Multiple (symbol)	IS	Multiple (symbol)	ISO/IEC
kilobyte (kB)	$10^3$	kibibyte (KiB)	$2^{10}$
megabyte (MB)	$10^6$	mebibyte (MiB)	$2^{20}$
gigabyte (GB)	$10^9$	gibibyte (GiB)	$2^{30}$
terabyte (TB)	$10^{12}$	tebibyte (TiB)	$2^{40}$
petabyte (PB)	$10^{15}$	pebibyte (PiB)	$2^{50}$
exabyte (EB)	$10^{18}$	exbibyte (EiB)	$2^{60}$
zettabyte (ZB)	$10^{21}$	zebibyte (ZiB)	$2^{70}$
yottabyte (YB)	$10^{24}$	yobibyte (YiB)	$2^{80}$

Binary units in computer science

In pure mathematics a value does not have a space limit for its representation, however, machines generally work with a fixed number of bits

Bit

The smallest unit of information on a machine is called bit

With a bit, only one value of two different possible values can be represented, for example: zero or one, false or true, white or black, down or up, no or yes, etc

Nibble

A nibble is a collection of 4 bits

It wouldn't be an interesting type of data except that with a nibble you present a number BCD and also that a nibble can represent a digit hexadecimal

Byte

A byte is a collection of 8 bits

References to a certain memory location in all microprocessors are never less than one byte (most use multiples of bytes), therefore it is considered the smallest locatable (addressable) data

The bits are usually numbered from 0 to 7

The bit 0 is called bit of lower order or less significant, the bit 7 is considered the bit of the highest order or the most significant

A byte also consists of 2 nibbles, the bits 0, 1, 2 and 3 form the call nibble of a lesser order, and the bits 4, 5, 6 and 7 form the nibble of higher order

Since a byte is made up of two nibbles, It is possible to represent any value with two digits hexadecimals

Word

A word It's a group of 16 bits, the bit 0 is the bit of lower order and the bit 15 is the highest order

A word can be divided into 2 bytes called equally low and high order

Also a word can be considered as a group of 4 nibbles

A double word is considered to be a group of 32 bits

A quadruple word is considered to be a group of 64 bits

Modern computers typically have a word size of 16, 32, or 64 bits

Many other sizes have been used in the past, such as 8, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 39, 40, 48, and 60 bits

The slab is one of the examples of one of the first word sizes

Some early computers were decimal rather than binary, typically having a word size of 10 or 12 decimal digits and some early computers did not have a fixed word length

Sometimes the size of a word is defined to have a particular value for compatibility with older computers

Microprocessors used in personal computers (for example, Intel Pentium and AMD Athlon) are an example

Its IA-32 architecture is an extension of the original Intel 8086 design that had a word size of 16 bits

Los procesadores IA-32 siguen soportando programas del 8086 (x86), así que el significado de palabra en el contexto IA-32 sigue siendo el mismo y se continua diciendo que son 16 bits, a pesar del hecho de que en la actualidad (el tamaño del operando por defecto es 32 bits) operates more like a machine with a word size of 32 bits

Similarly in the new x86-64 architecture, one word is still 16 bits, aunque los operandos de 64 bits (quadruple word) are more common

Integer numbers

It is possible to represent a finite number of integer numbers

For example, with 8 bits we can represent 256 different objects

If a scheme were used positive integer numbers each of these objects would be numbered from 0 to 255

It is also possible to use a scheme negative integers numbers, for this case the system is used two's complement, where the bit of a higher order is the bit of sign, if such bit is zero, the number is positive, if it is one, the number is negative

If the number is positive it is stored in its standard binary value, if the number is negative it is stored in its standard binary form two's complement

Real numbers

The way computer architecture solves the problem of representing real numbers is through the numbers of floating-point

A number floating-point is divided into 3 sections of bits: sign, signifier and exponent with sign

Conversions

Conversion to the decimal system

The binary representation of a decimal number (the transition from a number in base 10 to its corresponding base 2), is calculated by successively dividing the quotient of the division of the number by the divisor 2, until obtaining a quotient less than 2

The representation in base 2 will be, the last quotient followed by the last remainder followed by the previous remainder followed by the previous remainder, and so on until the first remainder obtained

Example: Convert 3737 to binary representation

Number	Ratio	Rest
$\frac{3737}{2}$	1868	1
$\frac{1868}{2}$	934	0
$\frac{934}{2}$	467	0
$\frac{467}{2}$	233	1
$\frac{233}{2}$	116	1
$\frac{116}{2}$	58	0
$\frac{58}{2}$	29	0
$\frac{29}{2}$	14	1
$\frac{14}{2}$	7	0
$\frac{7}{2}$	3	1
$\frac{3}{2}$	1	1

So we have to:

3737_{(10} = 111010011001_{(2}

Convert from decimal to binary with decimal

The binary representation of a decimal number with decimals (the transition from a number in base 10 to its corresponding number in base 2)

It is calculated by successively multiplying the number (then the results) without its integer part by 2, until a number without decimals is obtained, up to a quantity that is repeated periodically (in the case of periodic numbers)

Or even a number of digits predefined by machine precision

The representation in base 2 will be the integer part without modifications, then the comma is added and finally the integer part of the result of the successive multiplications

Example: Convert 56.75 to binary representation with decimals

Number	Ratio	Rest
$\frac{56}{2}$	28	0
$\frac{28}{2}$	14	0
$\frac{14}{2}$	7	0
$\frac{7}{2}$	3	1
$\frac{3}{2}$	1	1

So we have that the integer part is:

$56_{(10} = 111000_{(2}$

Number	Result	Integer part
$0,75 \cdot 2$	1,5	1
$(1,5 - 1) \cdot 2$	1	1

So we have that the decimal part is:

$0,75_{(10} = 11_{(2}$

So we have to:

56,75_{(10} = 111000,11_{(2}

Convert from binary system to decimal

The decimal representation of a binary number would correspond to applying the formula:

$b_1\cdot 2^{(n - 1)} + \cdots + b_n \cdot 2^0$

Where n would be the length of the string and $b_i$ the value corresponding to the i-th position of the string, starting from left to right

Example: Convert 111010011001 to decimal representation

$111010011001_{(2}= 1 \cdot 2^{11} + 1 \cdot 2^{10} + 1 \cdot 2^9 + 0 \cdot 2^8 + 1 \cdot 2^7 + 0 \cdot 2^6 + 0 \cdot 2^5 + 1 \cdot 2^4 + 1 \cdot 2^3 + 0 \cdot 2^2 + 0 \cdot 2^1 + 1 \cdot 2^0 = 2048 + 1024 + 512 + 0 + 128 + 0 + 0 + 16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1 = 3737_{(10}$

So we have to:

$111010011001_{(2}=3737_{(10}$

Convert from binary system to decimal with decimal places

If the number also has decimals, it will be expressed with the following formula:

$b_1\cdot 2^{(n - 1)} + \cdots + b_n \cdot 2^0+b_{n+1}\cdot 2^{-1} + \cdots + b_{n+m} \cdot 2^{-m}$

Where n would be the length of the string without decimals, m the length of the string with decimals, $b_i$ the value corresponding to the i-th position of the string, starting from left to right

Example: Convert 111000.11 to decimal representation

$111000,11_{(2}=1 \cdot 2^5 + 1 \cdot 2^4 + 1 \cdot 2^3 + 0 \cdot 2^2 + 0 \cdot 2^1 + 0 \cdot 2^0 + 1 \cdot 2^{-1} + 1 \cdot 2^{-2} = 32 + 16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0,5 + 0,25 = 56,75(10$

So we have to:

$111000,11_{(2}=56,75(10$

Data, Programming

BCD

Monday October 7th, 2024 secarcam

Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD)

Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD), in computer science, is a standard for representing decimal numbers in the binary system, where each decimal digit is encoded with a sequence of 4 bits

With this special coding of the decimal digits in the binary system, Arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division can be performed

Each decimal digit has a binary representation coded with 4 bits:

Decimal	BCD
0	0000
1	0001
2	0010
3	0011
4	0100
5	0101
6	0110
7	0111
8	1000
9	1001

The decimal numbers, are coded in BCD with the bits that represent their digits

Example: BCD encoding of decimal number 59237

Decimal	BCD
5	0101
9	1001
2	0010
3	0011
7	0111

Definition

In BCD each digit that represents a decimal digit (0, 1,… 8 and 9) is represented by its equivalent binary in four bits (nibble or quartet)

Since nine is the number highest that can be represented in BCD

The following table shows the most commonly used BCD codes:

Decimal	Natural	Aiken	Excess 3
0	0000	0000	0011
1	0001	0001	0100
2	0010	0010	0101
3	0011	0011	0110
4	0100	0100	0111
5	0101	1011	1000
6	0110	1100	1001
7	0111	1101	1010
8	1000	1110	1011
9	1001	1111	1100

The BCD only uses 10 of the 16 possible combinations that can be formed with numbers of 4 bits, so the system loses representation capacity, although it facilitates the compression of the numbers

This is because BCD is only used to represent the digits, no the numbers in its entirety

This means that for numbers more than one figure requires two numbers BCD

A simple way to calculate numbers in BCD it is usually adding bit to bit, and if the set of 4 bits exceeds the number 9, then is added a 6 (0110) in binary, to be able to start over, as if we were doing a module to the summand

Since computer systems began to store data in sets of eight bits (octet), there are two common ways to store BCD data:

Omission of the four bits (as is the case in the EBCDIC)
Storage of two BCD data; it is the so called "packaged" BCD, in which the sign is also included first, usually with 1100 for the + and 1101 for the –

In this way, the number 127 would be represented as (11110001, 11110010, 11110111) in the EBCDIC or (11000001, 00100111) in the packaged BCD

BCD is still widely used to store data, in binary arithmetic or in electronics

The numbers can be easily displayed on seven segment viewers by sending each BCD quartet to a viewer

A personal computer's BIOS usually stores the date and time in BCD format; probably for historical reasons the need for its conversion into ASCII was avoided

The advantage of BCD code over rendering classic binary is that there is no limit to the size of a number

The numbers that are represented in binary are generally limited by the number greater than can be represented with 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits

Conversely, using BCD, add a new digit it only involves adding a new sequence of 4 bits

Convert from Decimal To XS3 (Excess 3)

The conversion of decimal numbers to excess 3 (XS3) is made by successively adding 3 to each digit

The resulting amount is converted to binary

Example: Convert Decimal 67 to XS3

We take every digit and we add 3

Number	Result
6	9
7	10

To the digits resulting we convert them into binary

Digit	Binary
9	1001
10	1010

So we have to:

67_{(10} = 1001\hspace{2mm}1010_{(XS3}

BCD in electronics

BCD is very common in electronic systems where a numerical value must be displayed, especially in non programmed digital systems (without a microprocessor or microcontroller)

Using the BCD code, the manipulation of the numerical data to be displayed is simplified, for example in a seven segment viewer

This in turn leads to a simplification in the physical design of the circuit (hardware)

If the numerical quantity were stored and manipulated in natural binary, the circuit would be much more complex than if the BCD were used

There is a program called b1411 that is used to divide the binary system in two combinations

Una por ejemplo es la de sistemas digitales

IBM and BCD

IBM used the terms decimal encoded in binary and BCD, for the binary code of six bits with which they could be represented numbers, capital letters, and special characters

A variant of the BCD was used on most of IBM's early computers, including IBM1620 and IBM 1400

With the introduction of the System/360, the BCD was replaced by EBCDIC, of eight bits

The positions of the bits, in the BCD of six bits, they were generally labeled B, A, 8, 4, 2 and 1

To encode the numeric digits, A and B were zero

The letter A was coded as (B, A, 1), etc

Legal History

In 1972, the U.S. Supreme Court overturned a lower court's decision that had allowed a patent to convert numbers BCD encoded to binary on a computer

This was one of the first important cases to determine the patentability of software and algorithms employees in the same

Data, Programming

System Octal

Monday October 7th, 2024 secarcam

System octal

The system octal has base 8 and is represented by the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

Conversions

To convert decimal system to octal

The binary representation of a decimal number (the passage of a number in base 10 to its corresponding in base 8), is calculated by successively dividing the quotient of the division of the number by the divisor 8, until obtaining a quotient less than 8. The representation in base 8 it will be the last quotient followed by the last remainder followed by the previous remainder followed by the previous remainder and so on until the first remainder obtained

Example: Convert 3737 to octal representation

Number	Ratio	Rest
$\frac{3737}{8}$	467	1
$\frac{467}{8}$	58	3
$\frac{58}{8}$	7	2

So we have to:

3737_{(10} = 7231_{(8}

To convert decimal system to octal with decimal

La representación binaria de un número decimal con decimales (el paso de un número en base 10 a su correspondiente en base 8), se calcula multiplicando sucesivamente el número (después los resultados) sin su parte entera por 8, hasta obtener un número sin decimales, hasta una cantidad que se repita periódicamente (en el caso de números periódicos), o hasta un número de dígitos predefinido por la precisión de la máquina. La representación en base 8 será, la parte entera sin modificaciones, después se le añade la coma y por último la parte entera del resultado de las multiplicaciones sucesivas

Example: Convert 56.75 to octal representation with decimals

Number	Ratio	Rest
$\frac{56}{8}$	7	0

So we have that the integer part is:

$56_{(10} = 70_{(8}$

Number	Result	Integer part
$0,75 \cdot 8$	6	6

So we have that the decimal part is:

$0,75_{(10} = 6_{(8}$

So we have to:

56,75_{(10} = 70,6_{(8}

Convert system-octal to decimal

The decimal representation of an octal number would correspond to applying the formula:

$b_1 \cdot 8^{(n - 1)} + \cdots + b_n \cdot 8^0$

Where n would be the length of the string, and $b_i$ the value corresponding to the i-th position of the string, starting from left to right

Example: Convert 7231 to decimal representation

$7231_{(8}=7 \cdot 8^3 + 2 \cdot 8^2 + 3 \cdot 8^1 + 1 \cdot 8^0 = 7 \cdot 512 + 2 \cdot 64 + 3 \cdot 8 + 1 \cdot 1 = 3584 + 128 + 24 + 1 = 3737_{(10}$

So we have to:

7231_{(8}= 3737_{(10}

Convert system octal to decimal with decimal places

If the number also has decimals, it will be expressed with the following formula:

$b_1 \cdot 8^{(n - 1)} + \cdots + b_n \cdot 8^0+ b_{(n + 1)} \cdot 8^{-1} + \cdots+ b_{(n + m)} \cdot 8^{-m}$

Where n would be the length of the string without decimals, m the length of the string with decimals, $b_i$ the value corresponding to the i-th position of the string, starting from left to right

Example: Convert 70.6 to decimal representation

$70,6_{(8}=7 \cdot 8^1 + 0 \cdot 8^0 + 6 \cdot 8^{-1} = 7 \cdot 8 + 0 \cdot 1 + 6 \cdot 0,125 = 56 + 0,75 = 56,75_{(10}$

So we have to:

70,6_{(8}= 56,75_{(10}

Data, Programming

Hexadecimal System

Monday October 7th, 2024 secarcam

Hexadecimal System

The hexadecimal system has base 16 and is represented by the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F}

Many values in computing are represented in hexadecimal

The value of a byte can be represented by two hexadecimal figures. From the decimal value 0 as 00, to the value 255 as FF

Every four binary figures correspond to a hexadecimal figure, so it also corresponds to the value of a nibble

Conversions

Convert from decimal number system to hexadecimal

The hexadecimal representation of a decimal number (the passage from a base 10 number to its corresponding on base 16) is calculated by successively dividing the ratio of the number division by divider 16, until a quotient less than 16 is obtained. The representation on base 16 will be, the last quotient followed by the last rest followed by the previous rest followed by the previous rest and thus up to the first remains obtained

To achieve the conversion, this table is also used to represent the values:

Conversion table
Decimal	Hexadecimal
0	0
1	1
2	2
3	3
4	4
5	5
6	6
7	7
8	8
9	9
10	A
11	B
12	C
13	D
14	E
15	F

Example: Convert 3737 to hexadecimal representation

Number	Ratio	Rest
$\frac{3737}{16}$	233	9
$\frac{233}{16}$	14	9

$14\rightarrow E$
$9\rightarrow 9$

So we have to:

3737_{(10} = E99_{(16}

Convert from decimal number system to hexadecimal with decimal

The hexadecimal representation of a decimal number with decimal places (the passage from a base 10 number to its corresponding base 16), is calculated by multiplying the number (then the results) without its entire part by 16, to obtain a number without decimal places, up to a number that is repeated periodically (in the case of periodic numbers), or up to a number of digits predefined by machine accuracy. The base 16 representation will be, the whole part unchanged, then the comma is added and finally the whole part of the result of successive multiplications

Example: Convert 56.75 to hexadecimal representation with decimal places

Number	Ratio	Rest
$\frac{56}{16}$	3	8

$3\rightarrow 3$
$8\rightarrow 8$

So we have that the integer part is:

$56_{(10} = 38_{(16}$

Number	Result	Integer part
$0,75 \cdot 16$	12	12

$12\rightarrow C$

So we have that the decimal part is:

$0,75_{(10} = C_{(16}$

So we have to:

56,75_{(10} = 38,C_{(16}

To convert from hexadecimal system to decimal

The decimal representation of a binary number would correspond to applying the formula:

$b_1 \cdot 16^{(n - 1)} + \cdots + b_n \cdot 16^0$

Where n would be the length of the chain, $\text{y }b_i$ the value corresponding to the i-th position of the string, starting from left to right

Example: Convert E99 to decimal representation

$E\rightarrow 14$
$9\rightarrow 9$

$E99_{(16}=E \cdot 16^2 + 9 \cdot 16^1 + 9 \cdot 16^0 = 14 \cdot 256 + 9 \cdot 16 + 9 \cdot 1 = 3584 + 144 + 9 = 3737_{(10}$

So we have to:

E99_{(16}=3737_{(10}

To convert from hexadecimal system to decimal with decimal places

If the number also has decimals, it will be expressed with the following formula:

$b_1 \cdot 16^{(n - 1)} + \cdots + b_n \cdot 16^0 + b_{(n + 1)} * 16^{-1} + \cdots+ b_{(n + m)} \cdot 16^{-m}$

Where n would be the length of the string without decimals, m the length of the string with decimals, $b_i$ the value corresponding to the i-th position of the string, starting from left to right

Example: Convert 38.C to decimal representation

$3\rightarrow 14$
$8\rightarrow 9$
$C\rightarrow 12$

$38,C_{(16}=3 \cdot 16^1 + 8 \cdot 16^0 + C \cdot 16^{-1} = 3 \cdot 16 + 8 \cdot 1 + 12 \cdot 0,0625 = 48 + 8 + 0,75 = 56,75_{(10}$

So we have to:

38,C_{(16}=56,75_{(10}

Cookie	Duration	Description
CookieLawInfoConsent	Until the end of the browser session	Controla la visualización del consentimiento de Cookies, su gestión y visualización en la página web por parte del usuario
qtrans_admin_language	Until the end of the browser session	Permite al administrador gestionar la traducción de la página web a varios idiomas
qtrans_edit_language	Until the end of the browser session	Permite al administrador editar la traducción de la página web a varios idiomas
viewed_cookie_policy	Until the end of the browser session	Controla si la visualización del consentimiento de Cookies es visible actualmente en la página web para el usuario o por el contrario está oculta